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The computing program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953
The Office of Naval Research (ONR) played a vital role in the postwar support of basic research in the sciences at the nation's universities in the years immediately following World War II before the establishment of the National Science Foundation in 1950 and its expanded funding a few years later. Part of ONR's mathematics program was devoted to the support of computers and computing, and this article will report on that aspect of ONR's activities and the related activities at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS).1
The establishment of ONR at the end of World War II reflected the concern of several of the naval officers who had been associated with the work of the wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) and of leaders in both the legislative and executive arms of the government that the vitality and momentum of wartime research would be lost in the postwar years and the level of civilian scientific research would be disastrously diminished. This concern was formulated by Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal in a memorandum he sent to the president, dated February 1945, in which he said, "The problem which began to emerge during the 1944 fiscal year is how to establish channels through which scientists can [contribute to the nation's security by carrying on research] in peace as successfully as they have during the war." In response to this initiative and the support it received, ONR was established by act of Congress in 1946. In June of that year, I was invited to go to Washington to set up its program in the mathematical sciences.
I had been executive assistant to Warren Weaver, the chief of the Applied Mathematics Panel (AMP) of OSRD during the war, and had frequent dealings with several of the naval officers attached to the U.S. navy's liaison office with us. It was one of these officers who suggested my name to Alan Waterman, the first chief scientist of ONR whom I had known in OSRD. Although I thought it somewhat unlikely that mathematicians would be enthusiastic about accepting support for their peacetime research from one of the military services, I decided, after talking with some of my wisest friends, to accept the appointment. During the early days of my tenure, I traveled widely around the United States to discuss with senior research mathematicians the type of program that would be desirable and appropriate, and their willingness to participate in it. The only guidelines laid down by the navy for the determination of this program were those set by Public Law 588 of 1946, which, in the words of the preamble, established
an Office of Naval Research in the Department of the Navy; to plan, foster, and encourage scientific research in recognition of its paramount importance as related to the maintenance of future naval power, and the preservation of national security; to provide within the Department of the Navy a single office, which, by contract and otherwise, shall be able to obtain, coordinate, and make available to all bureaus and activities of the Department of the Navy, world-wide scientific information and the necessary services for conducting specialized and imaginative research; to establish a Naval Research Advisory Committee consisting of persons pre-eminent in the field of science and research, to consult with and advise the Chief of such Office in matters pertaining to research.
The program we designed after wide consultation received the blessing of Captain Robert D. Conrad, USN, the military officer who was responsible for the entire contract research effort of ONR and was viewed by the staff as the spiritual father of ONR. In 1947 he wrote to me that I had "won the title of mathematical architect of O.N.R."
The program we planned provided for the support of research in pure and applied mathematics, statistics, and computer development with its related numerical analysis to ensure the sophisticated use of electronic computers when they became available. Implementation of this broad policy was in the hands of the staff, and an able staff was assembled. The objective was to develop a program of first-class mathematical research that was of long-range interest to the navy and to identify mathematical results of potential importance to the navy wherever and whenever they appeared (see [21]). One such result that appeared very soon was George Dantzig's work in linear programming, which, as I will report later, gave rise to a substantial and important logistics program in ONR.
Profiles in computing: Brian K. Reid: a graphics tale of a hacker tracker
"When the Securities Exchange Commission was created by Franklin Roosevelt, he was trying to fix a lot of problems on Wall Street. There were various Ivan Boesky-type crimes being committed on the stock market, and Roosevelt wanted to create a regulatory agency that would keep it in line. He wanted to hire a sheriff to police Wall Street. What he did was he hired the person who was absolutely, unarguably, the biggest criminal on Wall Street—the person who was guilty of the most crimes. And he put him in charge of the Securities Exchange Commission, figuring that that person, being the most successful Wall Street bandit, knew all the tricks and could police his friends. And that person did a really good job of cleaning up Wall Street actually, because he did know all the tricks."
"In a certain sense, I got my start in the computer business by bending the rules, or not knowing what the rules were. I was extremely good at penetrating everyone's computer security when I was a kid. And, because of my tremendous knowledge in this area, I have frequently been called in to help catch people who break in. . . ."
From Washington: public policy issues ripen with age
The computerists of 1947, as creative and foresighted as they were, could hardly have imagined that the industry they helped to mold would one day be forcing technological issues of worldwide consequence. Back then the idea was to figure out how to build computing systems; today the idea is to figure out how to live (peacefully) with what we've built.
As computing systems grew in popularity and use, so did the public's concerns over the impact these new machines would have on their lives and livelihoods. It would soon become the role of computing organizations like ACM to alleviate those fears by educating the public, and later the U.S. government, as to the true power and potential of its technological efforts. However, many computer people today contend that sharing information is not enough and are urging the scientific industry as a whole, and ACM in particular, to take a more active role in government and legislative activities. The technological issues at hand—SDI, trade sanctions, public security, international competition, among so many others—are too sophisticated, complex, and volatile to handle from the sidelines.
Political issues in the earliest days of the computing era most often involved business maneuvers. Edmund C. Berkeley, a founding member and first ACM secretary (1947-1953), remembers that, even in 1947, there was the hint of "corporate takeover" in the air as he wrote the original ACM bylaws with colleagues James Russell of Columbia University and E. G. Andrews of Bell Telephone. "The first bylaw we wrote stated that dues would be $2 per year," recalls Berkeley during a recent interview for Communications. "The second bylaw we wrote stated that ACM would never become an IBM organization. It was a possibility we all feared at that time because [IBM] was making use of 50 to 75 percent of the computer field. So we wrote up a rule to protect ourselves."
Public concerns over the social and political implications of this new technology did not surface until computers went commercial and data became public property, remembers Mina Rees, a member of the first ACM Executive Council in 1947. Before then, computer experts were too busy building systems to worry about their long-term effects. "We didn't have any of these bright youngsters around to tell us," she muses. "The [industry] people at that time didn't known about political or public concerns."
Rees's earliest memory of growing outside awareness of computerization backlash was in 1951 when the U.S. Census Bureau began automating its operation with Eckert-Mauchly's Univac (see p.832). "That was the first time people became aware that other people might be able to get hold of private information," she says. One way to allay those concerns was through education, and Rees was dedicated to spreading the word. "I made a point of accepting [speaking] invitations because, as an educator, I strongly believed the only way we would make progress would be to spread as much information as possible," she says. "There were deep sources of information and sharing that knowledge saved us from having to discover it a second time."
Commentaries on the past 15 years
A longtime member comments on the trends, happenings, events, and accomplishments of ACM in the period 1972-1987, followed by "Self-Assessment Procedure XVII."
A metamodel of information flow: a tool to support information systems theory
In this paper an axiomatic, fundamental metamodel of data flow is constructed. The components of the metamodel are the states along the flow of data: physical events, language (data), stored data, human data processing, and decision making. Transfers from one state to another are performed by functions: coding, keying, processing, perceptions, and human acting. The entire flow is evaluated by a value function. Each of the states and functions is rigorously described by means of definitions, axioms, and theorems. The main purpose of the metamodel is to provide a common framework for various models in MIS and consequently to remedy the "Tower of Babel" syndrome prevailing in this area. The way the metamodel can be used to develop other models in MIS is explained in the last part of the paper.
The Computing Research Board's latest survey on the production and employment of Ph.D.'s and faculty in computer science and engineering depicts a young, optimistic discipline where supply may not always meet demand.
One of the primary effects of software abstraction has been to further the notion of computer programs as objects rather than moving programming closer to the problem being solved. Knowledge abstraction, however, allows software to take a significant step toward the problem domain.
Recently developed word processing software can correctly format the cursive, interacting letters of the Arabic script. Moreover, new layout procedures can automatically intermix right-to-left Arabic writing with left-to-right text in European or other languages.
The quadcode and its arithmetic
The quadcode is a hierarchical data structure for describing digital images. It has the following properties: (1) straightforward representation of dimension, size, and the relationship between an image and its subsets; (2) explicit description of geometric properties, such as location, distance, and adjacency; and (3) ease of conversion from and to raster representation. The quadcode has applications to computer graphics and image processing because of its ability to focus on selected subsets of the data and to allow utilization of multiple resolutions in different parts of the image. A related approach is the quadtree. Samet recently presented a thorough survey of the literature in that field [7]. Gargantini [2] and Abel and Smith [1] presented linear quadtrees and linear locational keys that are efficient labeling techniques for quadtrees. In those papers the geometric concepts of the image are discussed by using the tree as an interpretive medium, and the approaches and procedures are based on traversal of the nodes in the tree. In this paper we present the quadcode system, which is a direct description of the image, and discuss the geometric concepts in terms of the coded images themselves.
Spanish is a language with very precise and regular orthographic rules. A syllabication algorithm strictly based on syntactic analysis, not requiring any semantic knowledge, is presented and further extended to include hyphenation. Algorithms are presented as pattern matching schemata, and efficient implementations are considered.
The tea-leaf reader algorithm: an efficient implementation of CRC-16 and CRC-32
The tea-leaf reader CRC algorithms are error-detection algorithms that use a look-ahead table to increase execution speed.
Relationships between selected organizational factors and systems development
Three organizational variables influence the quality of the system development process: available resources (both human and financial), external influences on the development process, and the project team's exposure to information systems. Public information and interviews with systems managers from 28 large private firms yielded data about the organizational variables. Systems project group members completed questionnaires concerning the system development process. The results indicate that human resources affect the development process positively, but increased financial resources are related to team disagreement. The degree of external influence on the system development effort needs to be carefully monitored and controlled. Systems exposure in the firm allows an increase in the degree of awareness among project group members about the different problems encountered by users and systems staff.
Power over users: its exercise by system professionals
Analysis and awareness of the types of power that IS professionals exercise over users can improve the productivity of both parties.
Systems analysis: a systemic analysis of a conceptual model
Adopting an appropriate model for systems analysis, by avoiding a narrow focus on the requirements specification and increasing the use of the systems analyst's knowledge base, may lead to better software development and improved system life-cycle management.
Electronic markets and electronic hierarchies
By reducing the costs of coordination, information technology will lead to an overall shift toward proportionately more use of markets—rather than hierarchies—to coordinate economic activity.
An empirical validation of software cost estimation models
Practitioners have expressed concern over their inability to accurately estimate costs associated with software development. This concern has become even more pressing as costs associated with development continue to increase. As a result, considerable research attention is now directed at gaining a better understanding of the software-development process as well as constructing and evaluating software cost estimating tools. This paper evaluates four of the most popular algorithmic models used to estimate software costs (SLIM, COCOMO, Function Points, and ESTIMACS). Data on 15 large completed business data-processing projects were collected and used to test the accuracy of the models' ex post effort estimation. One important result was that Albrecht's Function Points effort estimation model was validated by the independent data provided in this study [3]. The models not developed in business data-processing environments showed significant need for calibration. As models of the software-development process, all of the models tested failed to sufficiently reflect the underlying factors affecting productivity. Further research will be required to develop understanding in this area.
Taking “computer literacy” literally
Computer literacy implies an analogy between computer-related skills and linguistic literacy that has not been seriously explored. Recent studies of linguistic literacy can illuminate the definition of computer literacy and can suggest new ways of teaching it.
This report summarizes the activities of the Computing Sciences Accreditation Board from its inception in 1984 through its first accreditation cycle completed in June 1986. The major activities during this period were directed at developing the CSAB structure necessary to carry out the accreditation process, and at conducting the first round of accreditation visits and actions.
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